The Scarlet Letter- An Analysis Of Symbolism free essay sample

Essay, Research Paper March 18,1994 The Scarlet Letter: An Analysis of Symbolism The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne is by and large considered to be the first American symbolic novel. A symbol is something which is used to stand for something broader in significance. The most obvious symbol in the novel is the existent vermilion # 8220 ; A # 8221 ; which both the unfavorable judgment and I agree upon. This # 8220 ; A # 8221 ; is the actual symbol of the wickedness of criminal conversation. The missive A so appears in many different signifiers throughout the novel. The gold-embroidered A on Hester Prynne # 8217 ; s fascinates Pearl Prynne. It is magnified in the armour chest home base at Governor Bellingham # 8217 ; s sign of the zodiac which is so utmost that it seems to conceal and cover Hester. On the dark of Arthur Dimmesdale vigil, he sees a ruddy Angstrom in the sky. And eventually, the missive is revealed on Dimmsdale # 8217 ; s thorax in forepart of the whole small town. We will write a custom essay sample on The Scarlet Letter- An Analysis Of Symbolism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The A besides takes on many significances. It has the original significance every bit good as different significances to assorted characters. To Hester, the A means humiliation. The A to Dimmesdale is a reminder of his ain attrition. To Pearl, the A is distinctive feature and Roger Chillingworth sees the A as a journey for revenge. Other so adultery, the A can besides stand for # 8220 ; Angel # 8221 ; and # 8220 ; Able # 8221 ; . Angel, for it appears in the sky after Governor Winthrop # 8217 ; s decease. Able, for Hester has won the regard of the Puritans even if she has sinned awfully. Hawthorne uses the prison edifice to depict offense and penalty in contrast with the gravestone at the terminal of the novel. This statement suggests the offense and penalty will finally take to the decease of the criminal. One positive symbol is the rosebush outside the prison. I feel it represents a sweet individual hidden in the incasements of a dark prison, a true diamond in the rough. The symbol for Puritanism, harmonizing to one critic, is when Hawthorne uses the beadle. I can see how the Puritans are compared to minor parish functionaries in the Church of England by the manner the society follows their lead. The Puritan kids are taught to contemn Hester for her criminal conversation. In the Puritan regulation this is an severe wickedness, so they dominate the judicial side of her penalty. The Puritan universe and the natural universe are besides contrasted continuously throughout the novel. The remainder of the symbolism is showed through the scene and the characters. The scene influences the overall temper of the book, while the characters write the novel and do it what it is. The full ambiance is grey. The skies and vesture of the people of the town are ever dark. This darkness symbolizes con cealment and secrets. Darkness normally ever represents a universe of immorality. The brightness of the twenty-four hours, nevertheless, is the symbol of exposure, where everything is seen. As colour is brought in, felicity is added. The Sun is bright with joy and has a life free of guilt. Pearl, as she runs in the wood, obtains and absorbs this sunlight. The Sun is incapable of touching Hester because of her indiscretion on her chest. The scaffold is mentioned numerously throughout the novel for a significant ground. The scaffold is non merely a symbol of Puritan codification but becomes a symbol for a documentation of personal wickedness. It is the topographic point where Dimmesdale knows he must travel for retribution, the lone topographic point he can get away from Chillingworth # 8217 ; s bantam tether. The wood is a really symbolic topographic point. It can be interpreted in three different ways. The first manner is as an evil topographic point where psyche are signed off to the Satan. In add-on, the wood is a topographic point where darkness and somberness conquers. Finding a way to steer you through this wood is what Hester has been seeking to happen over her old ages. The wood besides is symbolic for it is a topographic point where Pearl can run and play and Hester can allow her hair down without society glowering upon them. The creek is a symbol in several ways. It is an unknown beginning and travels through obscureness. The creek babbles to Pearl giving a history of wretchedness. The creek so becomes a boundary of two universes when Pearl will non traverse it. The natural universe which is the side Pearl is on while the other side is the Puritan eyeball. Character symbolism is a typical manifestation of Hawthorne # 8217 ; s symbolism. The Church, State, and Witchcraft of the Puritan universe are represented by Reverend Mr. Wilson, Governor Billingham, and Mistress Hibbins which were, later, all associated with the scaffold, a Puritan wickedness base. Pearl # 8217 ; s call itself is symbolic because it is the allusion of great monetary value. In this instance, that monetary value is Hester # 8217 ; s repute and her standing in the community. Pearl is besides a self-contained symbol. The consequence of her parent # 8217 ; s wickedness is shown in her frequently imprudent remarks and unchecked behaviour. Each character in the fresh suffers from a wickedness which they try to oppress and deplore with goodness from their ain bosom. The Scarlet Letter is a book filled with symbolism. I feel the symbolism helps to associate a state of affairs to a place the reader knows about. The critic which I based this on feels that there is voluminous histories of symbolism, even excessively much. I must differ with this. Hawthorne # 8217 ; s The Scarlet Letter is an surprisingly written book for its clip with merely the right sum of powerful symbolism.

Commonly Misspelled English Words Stop Your Common Grammar

Commonly Misspelled English Words Stop Your Common Grammar Even native speakers find it difficult to memorize all the words. What should we say about those for whom English is not the first language? They always seek for help and count on professionals. We could not stand away from the problem and decided to present you our top of the most commonly misspelled words in America, UK, Canada, and Australia if you travel there. You’ll find some tips about grammar and spelling improvement as well in your searches. The English language is one of the most active languages in the world. It develops and gets new words and concepts every day. The sources are numerous: intercultural writers; jargons and slangs; new technologies; new sciences; new culture happenings. The list can continue for ages. Of course, it is not algebra.  If we think closer, we'll check and understand that there is only our imagination that limits us in improving English. There is an even more important fact. All of these words appear naturally. There are no regulations, archetypes, and laws. With the appearance of the Internet, communication has reached an absolutely new gap. However, this liberty opens Pandora's box. Bad news: the number of errors and misspellings commitment is high. Professional Writing Help Most Frequently Misspelled Words in America and Other English Language Countries We cannot say if these words are the hardest to spell in the world, but this corpus is always on the top in similar articles and posts. Here they are: Accommodate Deduction Millennial Flabbergasted Oblivious Not only do these words get difficult spelling, but they are also pretty difficult to be understood on the average. They have several lexical meanings, many times a way too different from each other. Some of them are very surprising (like ‘flabbergasted'). Writing and speaking them correctly from the first try is like getting into the best and the most beautiful college in the USA or Oxford. You’ll never experience such success again. Of course, it is a yellow newsletter joke. If a word in the dictionary were misspelled, how would we know? Steven Wright Read Most Commonly Misspelled Word Classes Every person who is fond of English can understand that there is no sense to make a full list of commonly misspelled or spelled in a wrong way words one by one. It is a very subjective topic, and a full list of risks to be several kilometers long. It is better to indicate the groups of words you should pay attention to: Latin words. Since the very invention of homework words originated from Latin had been a grain of sand in every student’s eye. Despite this language being officially dead (nobody speaks it during regular live conversations anymore), there are a lot of English words connected with it. They tend to be used. Many people, even in the USA or GB misspell or do not know how to use popular Latin abbreviations and stable constructions (e.g., per se, et cetera, AD). French words. Histories and languages of England and France are related more than you can think. Did you know that French has been an official language of Albion for several hundred years? There is no surprise that a lot of words have stayed in English at the moment if these two languages are compared. And, of course, French words have saved their (sometimes) weird spelling and pronunciation. Dialect words. Every state, county, or city has got its own unique language set. Sometimes it may not be as understandable as it seems. Even local East Side Americans face difficulties when they move to California colleges. Should we say more about Australia or Liverpool and people lived there? Jargonisms and terms. Conduct a little experiment. Go to the building site and try to understand all the words workers shout to each other. We bet you'll not hear even a half of familiar words. Go to any online public forum and count the number of the slang words there. Without looking into a dictionary, you will not only misspell it. You will barely understand what is going on. Is there any way out? Are there any techniques that will help you to improve your spelling and pronunciation? We have at least three ideas for you. How Not To Make Common Mistakes In Difficult Words for The Rest of Life? Here are some ways of getting comprehension and grammar clarity instantly. Your best friend in expelling your spelling mistakes is a dictionary. There is no need to buy lots of expensive books. There are some perfect sites you can use every day. The first one is, of course, the Merriam-Webster dictionary (or Oxford’s dictionary).   It will give you all possible definitions of the word, correct spelling and pronunciation, and some examples with this word used in the context. If you need to dip into specific, slang or jargon words so common in modern English now, you need to visit Urban dictionary. It is the biggest dictionary of all slang and weird words. The dictionaries offer the variants of spelling. Are you a kind of artistic person with good imagination and image thinking? Then you can listen to favorite music and learn the words from there. Pay attention to some old American songs, and you’ll learn all difficult words immediately. Get Instant Writing Help Finally, the finest way to learn all misspelled words and save health is just learning them. You just have to make a process easier. For example, write down some lists with difficult words and hang them in the most common places in your house. Somewhere where you will not miss them by any means. On the other hand, you can make some little cards with words on each side (this version of studying was invented in Sorbonne University). Write down the words you have problems with and read them from time to time. No matter what you choose, the main trick is your persistence shown daily and monthly and habit development. Pick new words and learn them every day by heart. Soon (just in one month) you will notice that any searched English word is a piece of cake for you.

Gangs and the Criminal Justice System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gangs and the Criminal Justice System - Essay Example As per the recent news even the cargo ships were robbed by gangs near the territories of Somalia and hence the subject and gang and criminal justice system is more prevalent under present circumstances. Gangs have been in existence for as long as there have been inhabitants of this world. The history of criminal gangs can be traced back to even the biblical times. Such gangs are a part of history for thousands of years and their roots run deep into America’s past and culture. â€Å"The birth of America’s gang problem can be traced to the dawn of the country, a time when many Europeans migrated to the East coast with the intent of making a better life. After arriving, their savings was quickly depleted and many were forced to take out loans with local merchants and colonization companies, who charged steep interest rates. Life for many was more difficult than they imagined and death due to poverty and disease was common. There were many who died orphaning their children. With no money to send the children back to their homeland and with no relatives to care for them in America was a common problem in many cities†. ((Jared L. A wide variety of historical gangs, such as the Muslim Assassins, Adam the Leper s gang, Indian Thugs, Chinese Triads, Japanese Yakuza, American Old West outlaw gangs and Italian Mafia crime families have existed for centuries. Throughout the 19 th century, America was troubled with the gangs and gagsters like The James Gang, Billy the Kid, Irish gangs like the Whyos, Dead Rabbits, Plug Uglies, Jewish gangs like the Monk Eastman Gang, Five Points Gang etc. The Five Points Gang, led by Italian immigrant, Paolo Antonini Vaccarelli, was the most significant street gang to form in the United States, ever! The Five Points Gang became the Major League to many young street gangsters and a farm club for the Mafia. The most notorious recruit into the

How can usability improve the mobile-commerce channels Coursework

How can usability improve the mobile-commerce channels - Coursework Example Many people are using mobile phones for commercial purposes such as internet shopping. The fact that a great portion of the world population uses mobile phones has made mobile commerce a very useful technology which is worth developing. The launch of smart phones has also made this technology popular by moving it from systems that use SMS to those that use actual applications. This paper will discuss analyze the issue on the basis of different mobile commerce channels, which are business domains where mobile commerce has been implemented. Mobile ticketing: With mobile commerce in wide use, one of the benefits is mobile ticketing. One can attain a device such as a mobile phone. The process, in countries where it is applicable, has been made possible for those customers with mobile phones that can access the web they get their tickets online. It is still possible for mobile users who use gadgets that cannot access the web. SMS and MMS are used. A company may, for example, be using SIM (subscriber identity mobile) tool kit or USSD to give a purchase menu. A subscriber identity mobile kit is a platform that utilizes use of RF (radio frequencies. According to computer science and its application, CSA 2012, by Sang-Soo Yeo and others, a security chip is used. It receives instructions from the user and if the frequency is to be transmitted back to the SIM card, it is transmitted to the phone. If there is information to be processed, it is transmitted to the security chip, worked on and result forwarded automatically to the SIM that was used to request the service. For this case our expected result could is a ticket. The ticket comes as a secured message, either SMS or MMS image. The customer will enter their specifications here from choices given and send their request to the company’s server. If the customer has enough credit in an account linked to the mobile number, the server will be able to deduct an exact amount to the value of the ticket purchased, and t hen automatically send a confirmation text message to the customer. The confirmation SMS entails details of the product bought, for this case the ticket specifications, the date and time of purchase, and a unique code that identifies the ticket and can be manually entered. This is for a phone that is only SMS enabled and cannot execute MMS or WAP outputs. If mms or can output barcode images, a ticket recognition image is sent alongside the confirmation text message. With these considerations of type of phone used, usability, being the ease of use, is enhanced. Reading MMS or SMS is a very easy task. It is also easy during initial purchasing since the USSD code guide the users by giving options. In the future, there should be assistive technology for people with various disability problems. With better accessibility by all, the idea will have an expanded market. Lessons on the website on how to use this service should be easy to access. According to world statistics, done by Jupiter Research, mobile ticketing has been used in purchase of bus tickets, railway transport tickets, and movie and entertainment tickets. In March 2011, 250 million people were purchasing this tickets using mobile. It was estimated that by the year 2015 750 million people will be able to purchase tickets on mobile. MOBILE MONEY TRANSFER: Mobile banking is a growing field worldwide. It is a surprise

Benchmarking Microarchitecture Using Software Research Paper

Benchmarking Microarchitecture Using Software - Research Paper Example 327). These are defined by many parameters such as the instructions set, the instruction encoding and the rules for using these instructions. Some of the rules are mnemonics addressing modes and functionality. The details at this level are invisible to the user. This is known as abstraction. The implementation of MIPS is borne on the platform of Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC). Validation and Verification Validation in system design is concerned with the confirmation that the goals set are the right ones. This is to enable the proper implementation of the project. Validation is usually done during several different stages of development. It is essential at each level because it ensures that the preceding level is valid before proceeding to the next one. Validation is achieved in different ways. In the micro architecture, use of test inputs and checking on the result is the most common way of validation and verifying the system. So, before the development of the I/O functions , an algorithm is used to test various features if the microsystem. The benchmark program checks for the validity of many features of the micro architecture and verifies some of the features (Patterson, p. 47). Some of these features of the microsystem are illustrated below. The benchmark program used generates a quadratic residue from the integer inputs used by the algorithm. This program checks for functionality of different features mostly in computation. This is because it is the most important feature of the design. The instruction that will be fed into the system will need to be computed consistently. This makes the feature the basis of the design. This computation results in the output of the residue problem used. The program can be altered by using different quadratic residue problems to check for consistency in the system. This is also good for checking the range of values that the program can accept as input and compute without crashing. This is vital because then the desi gners can tell whether the system can accept the range of inputs specified in the requirements. They can also check whether it will need reprogramming. During this kind of testing, sometimes, wrong inputs are put to check how the system will react to them. The system should be able to handle wrong inputs without devastating consequences that will lead to system failure. The users are likely to enter wrong inputs from time to time and their handling should be factored in the design. The use of an 8-bit feedback register shows that the system has functionality for feedback. Feedback is described as the process where the system uses the output generated from a process as input for the same or a similar process. This is common in scenarios where complex computations are performed. These computations require the output of a process to be used as input. If this value has not been generated correctly, the system is likely to encounter an error. This is another feature, which is checked by the system. The application of this feedback is handled using a register. There are several other methods used for feedback systems such as logic circuits, but they are all used interchangeably. The program also has an increment functionality. This functionality is used to increase the value in the counter. The counter has many uses in the system, but is mostly utilized in checking the number of times a program performs a certain function. The increment functions increase the value

Creating Items and Response Scales

Creating Items and Response Scales The major issues in creating items and response scales are to determine the types of survey scales to use. The primary function of the survey scale is to allocate weight and to provide significance to the answers collected. If a scale does not exist than there’s no means to qualify the answers on any particular survey and the entire process becomes like calculating calories without a food weight calculator (different measurement units) next to the number. Creating scales, indexes or any instrument that may perhaps be identified as a test is a component of the investigating process that is related to calibration. Calibration is a speedy and effortless way to attain precision and accuracy, in which are essential goals of measurement. In order to best estimate the reliability and validity of a study or investigation, is to ask questions about the items fitting together or overlapping or if the responses can improve a measuring instrument used.  A scale is a cluster of items tha t taps into a single domain of behavior, attitudes, or feelings. The word scale has been known to be called composites, subtests, agenda, or supplies. On a measuring instrument the following are found on a scale: aptitude, attitude, interest, performance, and personality tests. A scale is always one-dimensional, which means it has construct and content validity. The first key to understanding the meaning of a construct is to define construct validity. A psychological construct is a characteristic, proficiency, aptitude, or skills that have an effect in the human brain and is described by well-known theories. For example, the computer proficiency test is a construct. It exists and observed during the day to day operations. Construct validity usually is defined as unproven demonstration that the test was assessing the construct it asserts to be measuring. The experiment could take the appearance of a differential group study, in which the processes on the test are compared to two groups: one that illustrates construct and the other one that does not illustrate a construct. If the group with the construct functions better than the group without the construct, then the outcome is said to offer proof of the construct validity regarding the test. An unconventional strategy is called an intervention study. The intervention study is a group that is fragile in the construct that is measured utilizing the test, then studied the construct and measured again. If an underlying pattern is found involving the pretest and posttest, the difference can support the construct validity of the test. There have been many other strategies which can investigate the construct validity of the test. The philosophy of construct validity is when known in psychology and sociology research community. Educational measurements involved three types of validity such as content, criterion-related and construct validity. Nevertheless, there is no single way to study construct validity. Construct validity should be illustrated from several different perspectives. When various approaches are used to demonstrate the validity of the test, the test users become more confident but only if the evidence proven by those strategies are convincing. The construct valid ity test should demonstrate an accumulation of evidence. Currently, there are at least four construct scales, Thurston scales, Likert scales, Guttman scaling and semantic differential scale. For example, the Likert scale asks people to indicate how much they agree or disagree, accept as true or false and approve or disapprove. There are no correct or incorrect way to develop a Likert scale, but one thing is important is that the Likert scale must have five response categories. However, individuals frequently confuse scales and response scales. A response scale is the methods that are collected from individuals on an instrument. A dichotomous question has only two different answers which can be found on Political surveys. On this sort of survey the response scale is to measure opinions on issues, such as if he or she Agree/Disagree, True/False, or has Yes/No responses. Moreover, a researcher may use an interval response scale like a one to five or one to seven rating sale of measurin g just how negative or how positive a person’s opinion of an issue is. However, if all the researcher is doing is attaching a response scale to an object or statement, than the researcher cannot call it scaling. Scaling include procedures that are done independently of the respondent so it is able to come up with a numerical value for the object. In true scaling studies, an individual uses a scaling procedure to develop ones instrument (scale) and also use a response scale to gather the responses from participants. Yet, to just allocate a one to five response scale for an item is not considered scaling. The Snyder Evaluation Model is an evaluation process regarded as a systems-based and participative approach involving participants as co-evaluators. In this model a three-stage process of evaluation is incorporated such as process, outcome, and a short-cycle evaluation. The method is mostly qualitative in its approach; however quantitative measures can be used when appropriate. Each evaluation stage builds upon a systems model or previous phases of how the project is carried out. Synder et al. (1997) research concerned the self-fulfilling influences of social stereotypes on two social interactions. This study approached attribution theory from several different angles, such as an individual cognitive and behavioral impression of other people. Each of the three steps methods called process, outcome and the short-cycle evaluation illustrates a systems model of how a group or project operates. The principal elements of the model are resources, activities, outcomes, goals and vision. Resources consist of any activities that produce immediate results in the pursuit of goals and objectives, in order to improve a particular situation. These include such resources such as money, equipment, physical materials, skills, time and goodwill. Activities are the day-by-day events carried out by individuals. The objectives are different goals that are specific for him or her to follow over a particular time frame. Moreover, goals are usually developed through a planning proce ss and revised during each treatment planning stage. As a result, the timeframe of the targeted problems or activities can either last a year or less than that. The first phase of Snyder evaluation is process evaluation. Process evaluation assists participants to understand the process and how their activities contribute to their goal. The participants learn the associations between the fundamentals of the model and discover how certain economic or productive resources and activities can contribute to goals and ideals. Therefore, these step by step breakdowns of the phases use to articulate the contributions, outputs, and processes that take place during each phase. A process evaluation can be utilized by improve understanding of how the process is carried out, and to ascertain possible targets for process improvement through removing problems and progression efficiency. The second phase is outcome evaluations. Outcome evaluations use the results of the activity, method, process or program and their contrast with the intended or projected results. Building on this understanding, participants can identify reasonable and applicable indicators of their accomplishments. These indicators can be used to review the overall achievement of the target or ideas, or results of the activity, effort, or process expressed in quantitative numbers. The outcome evaluation also can demonstrate the effectiveness of the process evaluation, receive ongoing feedback and monitoring. The outgoing evaluation of the process can be demonstrated by annotating the following: assessable targets, measurable immediate effects; measurable activities; assessable resources; create monitoring activities and evaluate progress. The third phase is short cycle evaluations. Short-cycle evaluation uses the indicators to build from the outcome evaluation in order to utilize useful feedback. The short-cycle evaluation examines if the targeting task is making progress by obtaining continuous feedback so that improvements obtained. These short cycle evaluations can take on several forms, such as identifying evaluations criteria and identifying evaluation information. The Snyder Evaluation Model is an evaluation process regarded as a systems-based and participative approach involving participants as co-evaluators. In this model a three-stage process of evaluation is incorporated such as process, outcome, and a short-cycle evaluation. The method is mostly qualitative in its approach; however quantitative measures can be used when appropriate. Each evaluation stage builds upon a systems model or previous phases of how the project is carried out. Synder et al. (1997) research concerned the self-fulfilling influences of social stereotypes on two social interactions. This study approached attribution theory from several different angles, such as an individual cognitive and behavioral impression of other people. Each of the three steps methods called process, outcome and the short-cycle evaluation illustrates a systems model of how a group or project operates. The principal elements of the model are resources, activities, outcomes, goals and vision. Resources consist of any activities that produce immediate results in the pursuit of goals and objectives, in order to improve the individual situation. These include such resources such as money, equipment, physical materials, skills, time and goodwill. Activities are the day-by-day events carried out by individuals. The objectives are individual goals that are specific for him or her to follow over a particular time frame. Moreover, goals are usually developed through a planning pr ocess and revised during each treatment planning stage. As a result, the timeframe of the targeted problems or activities can either last a year or less than that. The first phase of Snyder evaluation is process evaluation. Process evaluation assists participants to understand the process and how their activities contribute to their goal. The participants understand the associations between the fundamentals of the model and discover how certain economic or productive resources and activities can contribute to targets and ideals. Therefore, these step by step breakdowns of the phases use to articulate the contributions, outputs, and processes that take place during each phase. A process evaluation can be utilized by improve understanding of how the process is carried out, and to determine potential targets for process improvement through removing waste and increasing efficiency. The second phase is outcome evaluations. Outcome evaluations use the results of an activity, plan, method, or program and their comparison with the intended or projected results. Building on this understanding, participants can identify reasonable and applicable indicators of their accomplishments. The indicators can be utilized to evaluate the overall achievement of the target or ideas, or results of an activity, effort, or process that can be expressed in quantitative numbers. The outcome evaluation also can demonstrate the effectiveness of the process evaluation, receive ongoing feedback and monitoring. The outgoing evaluation of the process can be demonstrated by annotating the following: assessable targets, measurable immediate effects; measurable activities; assessable resources; create monitoring activities and evaluate achievement. The third phase is short cycle evaluations. Short-cycle evaluation uses the indicators to build from the outcome evaluation in order to utilize useful feedback. The short-cycle evaluation examines if the targeting task is making progress by obtaining continuous feedback so that improvements can be obtained. Furthermore, short cycle evaluation develops a self-improving project, such as: identifying evaluation criteria; identify assessment information; distinguish sources of information; create information systems; assess process and outcome evaluations; and generate review mechanisms. A step-by-step  breakdown  of the  phases  of a  process, used to  convey  the inputs,  outputs, and  operations  that take place during each phase. A process analysis can be used to  improve  understanding of how the process  operates, and to determine potential  targets  for  process improvement  through removing  waste  and increasing  efficiency. Read more:  http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/process-analysis.html#ixzz3GcBqWvJ0

Australia :: essays research papers

Australia Australia is the world's smallest continent and sixth-largest country. With proportionately more desert land than any other continent, Australia has a low population density. Lying completely in the Southern Hemisphere, Australia is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the west and south and by the Pacific Ocean on the east. These oceans merge on the north in the Arafura Sea between Australia and Indonesia and New Guinea, and on the south in the Bass Strait. The coastline length, estimated at 19,200 km (12,000 mi), is remarkably short for so large an area, a result of the relative lack of indentation. Major inlets other than the Gulf of CARPENTARIA and the GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT are few. A self-governing member of the Commonwealth of Nations, Australia celebrated its bicentennial in 1988z. It is a federation of five mainland states (NEW SOUTH WALES, QUEENSLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, VICTORIA, WESTERN AUSTRALIA) and one island state (TASMANIA), as well as two territories (AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY, NORTHERN TERRITORY). The country's name derives from the Latin terra australis incognita, meaning "unknown southern land," which resulted from a confusion between Australia and Antarctica on early world maps. In many ways Australia is unusual among continents. It lacks major relief features and has a high proportion of dry land. The continent's isolation from other landmasses accounts for its unique varieties of vegetation and animal life, and for the existence of a Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) culture among the Aborigines. Except for Antarctica, Australia was probably the last continent to be inhabited by humans and the last to be explored and settled by Europeans. It is the only continent comprising a single nation-state. Dutch explorers first sighted Australia in the early 17th century. Capt. James COOK explored the east coast in 1770 and claimed the land for Great Britain. In 1778 the first settlement (SYDNEY) was founded at an excellent harbor on the